Interferon gamma (IFNγ) is a dimerized soluble cytokine that is the only member of the type II class of interferons.[2] The existence of this interferon, which early in its history was known as immune interferon, was described by E. F. Wheelock as a product of human leukocytes stimulated with phytohemagglutinin, and by others as a product of antigen-stimulated lymphocytes [3][4] or tuberculin-sensitized mouse peritoneal lymphocytes[5] challenged with PPD; the resulting supernatants were shown to inhibit growth of vesicular stomatitis virus. Those reports also contained the basic observation underlying the now widely employed interferon gamma release assay used to test for tuberculosis. In humans, the IFNγ protein is encoded by the IFNG gene.
Function[edit]
IFNγ, or type II interferon, is a cytokine that is critical for innate and adaptive immunity against viral, some bacterial and protozoal infections. IFNγ is an important activator of macrophages and inducer of Class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule expression. Aberrant IFNγ expression is associated with a number of autoinflammatory andautoimmune diseases. The importance of IFNγ in the immune system stems in part from its ability to inhibit viral replication directly, and most importantly from its immunostimulatory and immunomodulatory effects. IFNγ is produced predominantly by natural killer (NK) and natural killer T (NKT) cells as part of the innate immune response, and by CD4 Th1 and CD8cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) effector T cells once antigen-specific immunity develops.
Receptor binding[edit]
See also: Interferon-gamma receptor
Cellular responses to IFNγ are activated through its interaction with a heterodimeric receptor consisting of Interferon gamma receptor 1 (IFNGR1) and Interferon gamma receptor 2 (IFNGR2). IFNγ binding to the receptor activates the JAK-STAT pathway. IFNγ also binds to the glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) at the cell surface. However, in contrast to many other heparan sulfate binding proteins, where binding promotes biological activity, the binding of IFNγ to HS inhibits its biological activity.[10]
The structural models shown in figures 1-3 for IFNγ[1] are all shortened at their C-termini by 17 amino acids. Full length IFNγ is 143 amino acids long, the models are 126 amino acids long. Affinity for heparan sulfate resides solely within the deleted sequence of 17 amino acids.[11] Within this sequence of 17 amino acids lie two clusters of basic amino acids termed D1 and D2, respectively. Heparan sulfate interacts with both of these clusters.[12] In the absence of heparan sulfate the presence of the D1 sequence increases the rate at which IFNγ-receptor complexes form.[10] Interactions between the D1 cluster of amino acids and the receptor may be the first step in complex formation. By binding to D1 HS may compete with the receptor and prevent active receptor complexes from forming.
The biological significance of heparan sulfates interaction with IFNγ is unclear, however binding of the D1 cluster to HS may protect it from proteolytic cleavage.
Biological activity[edit]
It was believed earlier that IFNγ is secreted by T helper cells (specifically, Th1 cells),cytotoxic T cells (TC cells) and NK cells only. But later studies showed that myeloid cells, dendritic cells and macrophages in particular, also secrete IFNγ that is likely important for cell self activation during the onset of the infection. Also, IFNγ is the only Type IIinterferon, and it is serologically distinct from Type I interferons: it is acid-labile, while the type I variants are acid-stable.
IFNγ has antiviral, immunoregulatory, and anti-tumor properties.[13] It alters transcription in up to 30 genes producing a variety of physiological and cellular responses. Among the effects are:
- Promotes NK cell activity
- Increase antigen presentation and lysosome activity of macrophages.
- Activate inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase iNOS
- Induces the production of IgG2a and IgG3 from activated plasma B cells
- Promotes Th1 differentiation by upregulating the transcription factor T-bet, ultimately leading to cellular immunity: cytotoxic CD8+ T-cells and macrophage activity - while suppressing Th2 differentiation, which would cause a humoral (antibody) response
- Cause normal cells to increase expression of class I MHC molecules as well as class II MHC on antigen-presenting cells—to be specific, through induction of antigen processing genes, including subunits of the immunoproteasome (MECL1, LMP2, LMP7), as well as TAP and ERAAP in addition possibly to the direct upregulation of MHC heavy chains and B2-microglobulin itself
- Promotes adhesion and binding required for leukocyte migration
- Induces the expression of intrinsic defense factors—for example, with respect to retroviruses, relevant genes include TRIM5alpha, APOBEC, and Tetherin, representing directly antiviral effects
IFNγ is the primary cytokine that defines Th1 cells: Th1 cells secrete IFNγ, which in turn causes more undifferentiated CD4+ cells (Th0 cells) to differentiate into Th1 cells, representing a positive feedback loop—while suppressing Th2 cell differentiation. (Equivalent defining cytokines for other cells include IL-4 for Th2 cells and IL-17 for Th17 cells.)
NK cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells also produce IFNγ. IFNγ suppresses osteoclast formation by rapidly degrading the RANK adaptor protein TRAF6 in the RANK-RANKLsignaling pathway, which otherwise stimulates the production of NF-κB.
Activity in Granuloma Formation[edit]
A granuloma is the body's way of dealing with a substance it cannot remove or sterilize. Infectious causes of granulomas (infections are typically the most common cause of granulomas) include tuberculosis, leprosy, histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, coccidioidomycosis, blastomycosis, and cat scratch disease. Examples of non-infectious granulomatous diseases are sarcoidosis, Crohn's disease, berylliosis, giant-cell arteritis, Wegener's granulomatosis, Churg-Strauss syndrome, pulmonary rheumatoid nodules, and aspiration of food and other particulate material into the lung. The infectious pathophysiology of granulomas is discussed primarily here.
The key association between IFNγ and granulomas is that IFNγ activates macrophages so that they become more powerful in killing intracellular organisms. Activation of macrophages by IFNγ from Th1 helper cells in mycobacterial infections allows the macrophages to overcome the inhibition of phagolysosome maturation caused by mycobacteria (to stay alive inside macrophages).[14] The first steps in interferon-γ-induced granuloma formation are activation of Th1 helper cells by macrophages releasing IL-1 and IL-12 in the presence of intracellular pathogens, and presentation of antigens from those pathogens. Next the Th1 helper cells aggregate around the macrophages and release IFNγ, which activates the macrophages. Further activation of macrophages causes a cycle of further killing of intracellular bacteria, and further presentation of antigens to Th1 helper cells with further release of IFNγ. Finally, macrophages surround the Th1 helper cells and become fibroblast-like cells walling off the infection.
Activity during pregnancy[edit]
Uterine Natural Killer cells (NK) secrete high levels of chemoattractants, such as IFNγ. IFNγ dilates and thins the walls of maternal spiral arteries to enhance blood flow to the implantation site. This remodeling aids in the development of the placenta as it invades the uterus in its quest for nutrients. IFNγ knockout mice fail to initiate normal pregnancy-induced modification of decidual arteries. These models display abnormally low amounts of cells or necrosis of decidua.[15]
Therapeutic use[edit]
Interferon-γ 1b is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to treat chronic granulomatous disease[16] and osteopetrosis.[17]
It was not approved to treat idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). In 2002, the manufacturer InterMune issued a press release saying that phase III data demonstrated survival benefit in IPF and reduced mortality by 70% in patients with mild to moderate disease. The U.S. Department of Justice charged that the release contained false and misleading statements. InterMune's chief executive, Scott Harkonen, was accused of manipulating the trial data, was convicted in 2009 of wire fraud, and was sentenced to fines and community service. Harkonen appealed his conviction to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, and lost.[18]
It is being studied at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia for the treatment of Friedreich's ataxia.[19]
Although not officially approved, Interferon-γ has also been shown to be effective in treating patients with moderate to severe atopic dermatitis. [20] [21] [22]
It is manufactured by InterMune as Actimmune and costs around USD300 per vial
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